Hexagram 41損Decrease
Lake below, mountain above — the lake gave up depth to make the mountain rise. The hexagram is the canonical instruction for the deliberate sacrifice: the cut that buys the focus, the scope reduction that lets the ship date hold, the pay cut that buys the option. The practical question is whether the reduction is sincere, whether the right thing is being given up, and whether what remains is concentrated enough to compound.
60-second read
Decrease is the hexagram for the deliberate sacrifice. The statement is unusually generous for a hexagram about loss: with sincerity, supreme fortune, no fault, firm correctness possible, advantageous to have somewhere to go. What use? Two simple bowls of grain may be offered. The discipline is to make the reduction sincerely — 有孚, with real sincerity — to choose the right thing to cut, and to keep what is given up clean. The hexagram does not romanticise austerity; it names the structural moment when removing the right thing is what makes the remainder compound.
The hexagram
損：有孚，元吉，無咎，可貞，利有攸往。曷之用？二簋可用享。
Decrease: with sincerity — supreme fortune, no fault, firm correctness possible, advantageous to have somewhere to go. What use? Two simple bowls of grain may be offered. — Translation by YiGram Editorial from the classical Chinese
“In (what is denoted by) Sun, if there be sincerity (in him who employs it), there will be great good fortune; — freedom from error; firmness and correctness that can be maintained; and advantage in every movement that shall be made. In what shall this (sincerity in the exercise of Sun) be employed? (Even) in sacrifice two baskets of grain, (though there be nothing else), may be presented.”
— James Legge, The Sacred Books of the East: The I Ching (1882), public domain.
The six lines
Click any line on the hexagram to read its passage. Use ↑ and ↓ after focusing the hexagram to step through the six positions.
已事遄往，無咎，酌損之。
Suspending his own affairs, hurrying away. No fault. Let him consider how much of his own to contribute.
“The first NINE, undivided, shows its subject suspending his own affairs, and hurrying away (to help the subject of the fourth line). He will commit no error, but let him consider how far he should contribute of what is his (for the other).”
— Legge (1882)
Line 1 is the yang at the bottom — the first position from which the gift moves upward, the actor closest to the source of what is being given up. The instruction is double. 已事遄往 — suspend the actor’s own affairs and hurry to help; the giving is urgent and the moment is now. But the second clause names the precision the line requires: 酌損之 — consider how much of his own to contribute. The character 酌 originally meant to pour wine measure by measure; the line names the discipline of giving in measured doses rather than emptying the vessel at the first opportunity.
In a decision context this is the line for the early helper, the first engineer who joins for half-rate, the partner who agrees to take less in the founding split. The temptation at line 1 is the inverse of stinginess: the actor, eager to demonstrate commitment, gives more than the situation needs. The hexagram is explicit that hurrying is correct and that the help is welcomed without fault — the no-fault clause is real — but that the size of the contribution must still be calibrated. Founders and operators who read line 1 cleanly understand that early sacrifice is part of the institution's founding, and that giving the right amount is what makes the giving sustainable into line 2. The line is not asking for everything; it is asking for the calibrated portion that the recipient at line 4 actually needs.
利貞，征凶，弗損益之。
Advantageous to maintain firm correctness; action brings evil. He can give increase without taking from himself.
“The second NINE, undivided, shows that it will be advantageous (for its subject) to maintain a firm correctness, and that action on his part will be evil. He can give increase (to his correlate) without taking from himself.”
— Legge (1882)
Line 2 is the centred yang in the lower trigram and the position the hexagram statement’s “firm correctness possible” most directly addresses. The instruction is structural rather than tactical. 利貞 — advantageous to maintain firm correctness; 征凶— aggressive action brings evil; and then the most interesting clause in the hexagram: 弗損益之 — he can give increase without taking from himself. The line is naming the moment when the actor’s contribution is structural — the presence at the centre, the steadiness of position — rather than transactional.
The decision-relevant translation is the lesson of contribution without depletion. Founders who hit line 2 typically discover that the most valuable thing they can offer is not more cash, more hours, or more sacrifice but the continued holding of the centre that everyone else is calibrating against. The senior engineer who stays calm under load gives more to the team than the same engineer working a third more hours. The CEO whose voice does not change when the round slips gives more to the company than the CEO who personally absorbs the visible anxiety. The hexagram is explicit that aggressive movement at line 2 — taking on more sacrifice as a demonstration — is the failure mode. Line 2's gift is the gift of unchanged centred presence, which costs nothing visible and which compounds more than any of the transactional sacrifices available at line 1.
三人行則損一人，一人行則得其友。
Three men walking — the number is diminished by one. One man walking — finds his friend.
“The third SIX, divided, shows how of three men walking together, the number is diminished by one; and how one, walking, finds his friend.”
— Legge (1882)
Line 3 is the position from which the structural yang of the hexagram was originally taken — the line that the binary picture says was given up to make the top — and the line text gives one of the I Ching’s most concise structural propositions: 三人行則損一人, three walking together, the number is diminished by one; 一人行則得其友, one walking alone, finds his friend. The hexagram is naming the geometry of partnership and the cost of carrying too many. Three is too many for the decision the walk requires; one is too few to weather the road; the natural form is two.
In a decision context this is the line for the partnership decision: the third co-founder whose addition is producing more coordination cost than capacity, the third board observer whose presence is preventing the real conversation, the third opinion that is hardening into a faction rather than dissolving into consensus. The line is unsentimental — one of the three has to go — and the dissolution is the precondition for the remaining two to walk as a real pair. The corresponding move for the actor walking alone is the inverse: the solo founder, the solo operator, the solo investor whose discipline is to find the one collaborator the work actually needs. Line 3 is the hexagram's clearest instruction that decreasing the headcount is sometimes the work that lets the partnership emerge.
損其疾，使遄有喜，無咎。
Diminish the ailment; make help come quickly. There will be cause for joy. No fault.
“The fourth SIX, divided, shows its subject diminishing the ailment under which he labours by making (the subject of the first line) hasten (to his help) and make him glad. There will be no error.”
— Legge (1882)
Line 4 is the shi-adjacent receiving position and the line that line 1 was hurrying toward. The instruction is precise. 損其疾 — diminish the ailment. 使遄有喜 — let the help arrive quickly and there will be joy. The hexagram is naming the specific reduction the line-4 actor must lead: not the reduction of resources, not the reduction of ambition, but the reduction of the specific impediment — the ailment, the blocker, the persistent friction — that the line-1 contributor is hurrying to help dissolve.
For decision-makers this is the line of the operator whose work is to name the bottleneck precisely enough that early help arrives at the right surface. Founders who hit line 4 typically discover that the work is not to ask for general assistance but to identify the one specific impediment whose dissolution unblocks the whole system. The bug in the onboarding flow. The legal review that is freezing the launch. The hiring loop that is rejecting the candidates the team actually needs. Naming the ailment with precision is what makes the line-1 contributor's hurried help useful rather than scattered. The joy named — 有喜 — is the joy of the right help arriving at the right place, which the hexagram treats as the structural deliverable rather than an emotional aside. Line 4 makes line 1's gift land.
或益之十朋之龜弗克違，元吉。
Someone gives increase — ten pairs of tortoise shells — that cannot be refused. Supreme fortune.
“The fifth SIX, divided, shows parties adding to (the stores of) its subject ten pairs of tortoise shells, and accepting no refusal. There will be great good fortune.”
— Legge (1882)
Line 5 is the yielding ruler line and the position carrying the hexagram’s only 元吉 — supreme fortune — the same character pair that opens the hexagram statement. The image is specific. Ten pairs of tortoise shells — the most valuable divinatory and ceremonial object in the Zhou economy — are offered to the actor, and the offer cannot be refused. The line is describing the structural moment when the actor’s earlier sacrifice has produced a position into which gifts naturally arrive, and where the right move is to receive them cleanly rather than to perform reluctance.
The decision-relevant translation is the lesson of arrived-at increase. Founders and operators who read line 5 cleanly understand that the reduction work of lines 1 through 4 is not the whole hexagram; line 5 is where the cut produces the gift. The investor whose conviction now closes the round without negotiation. The candidate whose offer arrives in the exact shape the team needs. The partnership offer from the larger company whose terms cannot reasonably be refused. The hexagram is explicit that the gift is unrefusable — 弗克違 — and that the supreme fortune attaches to receiving it without the performative humility that would treat the gift as larger than it is. The line is the hexagram's reward structure: sincere sacrifice at the earlier positions produces the unrefusable gift at line 5, and the discipline at line 5 is to take it.
弗損益之，無咎，貞吉。利有攸往，得臣無家。
Increase without taking from oneself. No fault. Firm correctness — fortune. Advantage in having somewhere to go. Gain ministers without households.
“The topmost NINE, undivided, shows its subject giving increase to others without taking from what is his own. There will be no error. With firm correctness there will be good fortune. There will be advantage in every movement that shall be made. He will find ministers more than can be counted by their clans.”
— Legge (1882)
Line 6 is the topmost position — the line that structurally received the yang that line 3 gave up — and the instruction inverts the rest of the hexagram. The actor at the top is no longer the one giving up; the actor is the one whose accumulated position now lets him give increase to others 弗損益之 — without taking from himself. The line is naming the moment when the cycle of sacrifice has produced enough surplus that further giving no longer costs the giver. 得臣無家 — gain ministers without households — describes followers whose loyalty is to the work rather than to any specific clan or factional base.
The decision-relevant translation is severe and corrective in the opposite direction from most line-6 readings. Founders and executives who reach line 6 typically discover that the giving has finally become non-extractive — the senior engineer mentoring the next cohort, the executive whose introductions land without strain, the founder whose advice to younger founders compounds without depleting his own runway. The line is explicit that the giving must remain real — 弗損益之 is not 'pretending to give while protecting yourself' — but that the structural position now lets the gift be made without the cost it carried at line 1. The followers gained at line 6 are the ones not bound by clan or household, which is the I Ching's picture of the network whose loyalty is to the value being produced rather than to inherited factional ties. Read with the Xiang's discipline — restrain anger, dam up desire — line 6 is the picture of the operator whose long sacrifice has produced the unforced influence the hexagram statement promised.
PostureSincere sacrifice · two simple bowls
Decrease is the structural inverse of Hexagram 42 — Increase. Where Hexagram 42 puts Thunder below and Wind above — energy moving outward, the season of investment and gain — Hexagram 41 puts Lake (Dui) below and Mountain (Gen) above. The picture is structural: the lake gave up depth to make the mountain rise. The yang from the third position was taken and placed at the top. The hexagram is the canonical I Ching image of the deliberate sacrifice in which what is given up below produces the rise above.
The hexagram statement is unusually generous for a hexagram about loss. 有孚，元吉，無咎 — with sincerity, supreme fortune, no fault. The promise conditions on a specific quality: 有孚, real sincerity, the same word that opens Hexagram 61 — Inner Truth. Decrease without sincerity is just loss; decrease with sincerity is the mechanism by which the supreme fortune of line 5 arrives. The hexagram’s most distinctive image follows: 曷之用？二簋可用享 — What use? Two simple bowls of grain may be offered. The instruction is precise. The sacrifice does not need to be elaborate; two simple bowls offered with proper ritual are sufficient. What matters is the sincerity of the offering, not the ornateness of the vessel. The Xiang compresses the hexagram into a four-character ethical instruction: 君子以懲忿窒欲 — the noble person restrains anger and dams up desire — treating the inner reduction as the structural correlate of the outer sacrifice.
Failure modesThree walking lose one (line 3) · over-giving past what serves
The dominant failure mode is the line-3 geometry read wrongly. The actor maintains the three-person partnership past the point where the structure can hold, refuses to accept that one of the three must leave, and the resulting drift consumes more energy than any of the three are contributing. The hexagram is explicit: 三人行則損一人 — three walking together, the number is diminished by one. Skipping the line-3 cut produces the failure pattern where coordination cost exceeds capacity. The secondary failure mode is the opposite of line 2 — the actor demonstrates commitment by giving more than the position requires, emptying the vessel at the first opportunity rather than pouring measure by measure (酌損之, line 1). The over-giver runs out of runway before line 5 arrives and never collects the ten pairs of tortoise shells the hexagram was structured to deliver. Both failures share a root: the actor mistakes the size of the sacrifice for the sincerity of it.
Application & adjacentQuestion shape · Hexagram 42 pair · Cutting to compound
A note on the question shape this hexagram answers best. Decrease rewards questions framed around a specific reduction under consideration — the scope cut before the ship date, the feature kill before the launch, the headcount reduction at the partnership level, the pay cut taken to extend runway, the customer segment dropped to focus the wedge. It is less useful for vague questions about whether the actor should generally 'do less'; for that question, re-read with Hexagram 15 — Modesty — or Hexagram 33 — Retreat — depending on whether the question is about lowered profile or about strategic withdrawal. Decrease presumes a specific sacrifice is on the table and answers whether it should be made, how it should be calibrated, and what the structural reward will be.
The canonical adjacent reading is Hexagram 42 — Increase — the structural inverse in the King Wen sequence. Where Hexagram 42 names the season of investment, when energy is moving outward and the discipline is to share the gain widely, Hexagram 41 names the season of focus, when energy is being consciously concentrated and the discipline is to choose the right reduction. The two together form the complete cycle of concentrated focus and generous expansion. Read with the Tuan’s framing — 損益盈虛，與時偕行, decrease and increase, fullness and emptiness, all move with time — the pair says that knowing which season you are in is the prerequisite for either move. Decrease in the Increase season is timid; Increase in the Decrease season is wasteful. Founders and operators who keep both hexagrams in view tend to time the cut more precisely and to invest more confidently when the season turns.
The line-5 instruction is the hexagram’s operational centre. The only 元吉 — supreme fortune — in the entire reading concentrates at the yielding ruler whose earlier sacrifice has produced the unrefusable gift of ten pairs of tortoise shells. The decision-relevant move is twofold. If the sacrifice has been made sincerely at lines 1 through 4, the instruction is to actually receive the gift the structure has now produced — the closed round, the right hire, the acquisition offer in the exact shape the company needs — without the performative humility that would treat the unrefusable as negotiable. If the line-5 gift has not yet arrived, the instruction is to return to the earlier lines and check the sincerity of the reduction. The hexagram is explicit that the supreme fortune conditions on the 有孚 — the real sincerity — that the statement names as the precondition of the entire reading.
SynthesisYiGram Editorial
Each Western line of reading approaches Decrease from a different angle. James Legge transliterates 損 as “Sun” and frames the hexagram within his Confucian moral lens — the discipline of sincere sacrifice as the precondition of legitimate fortune, with the two simple bowls read as the canonical Confucian argument against ostentatious ritual. Richard Wilhelm’s symbolic-philosophical posture reads the hexagram as “Decrease” in the more general sense of voluntary reduction — the conscious lowering of the self as a generative act. A reading in the lineage of Carl Jung’s 1949 foreword would treat 41 as a marker of the ego’s sacrifice in the service of the larger Self — what is given up below makes possible the rise above. Bradford Hatcher’s linguistic project (below) abandons all three framings and returns to the semantic field of 損 itself — reduction, concentration, distillation, the trimming of excess. None of these readings is quoted on this page; the synthesis is YiGram Editorial’s characterization of each tradition’s posture.
Reception historyLegge · Wilhelm · Baynes · Jung
The Western reception of the I Ching has two main lines. The first is James Legge’s 1882 missionary translation in the Sacred Books of the East series — methodical, Victorian, framed around Confucian moral readings. It is the public-domain anchor reproduced above. The second is Richard Wilhelm’s 1923 German translation, prepared in Qingdao in collaboration with Lao Naixuan — sympathetic, philosophical, closer to Daoist intuitions. Cary F. Baynes rendered Wilhelm into English in 1950, with a foreword by Carl Jung that introduced the book to Western psychology as a window onto synchronicity and the unconscious.
We cite these two lines by name to credit the reception history and to help search systems and readers resolve the entities; the Wilhelm/Baynes text itself and Jung’s foreword remain in copyright and are not quoted on this page. A more recent academic-linguistic line is represented by Bradford Hatcher’s Yijing project (1990s–2010s), which appears in the next section under his explicit redistribution permission.
Bradford HatcherVerbatim · © 2011
Hatcher organizes each hexagram around six short clusters of keywords that sketch the field of decision and association the Chinese name opens onto. For Hexagram 41 損, his clusters are:
Diminish; to reduce, economize, forego; contraction, concentration, conservation Sacrificing, offering up; dues, service, subtraction, trying to lose only inessentials Trimming excesses, plugging leaks, lowering expectations, doing more with less To make the most, make do; distill, condense, concentrate as forms of enrichment Enrich, make less dilute, keep the good stuff; building resilience; losing negatives Extenuation, distraction, depreciation, demands on resources, use, wear and tear
Hatcher’s framing is vocabulary-centred rather than narrative — the reader is invited to feel the semantic shape of the Chinese name through the spread of English fragments. For his longer notes and the full glossary entry, read the complete passage on hermetica.info.
Quoted verbatim from Bradford Hatcher, Yijing Hexagram Names and Core Meanings (Version 12.1, 2011), hermetica.info/GuaMing.htm. © Bradford Hatcher, 2011. Reproduced under the author’s explicit permission to redistribute his work intact, with copyright notice. Bradford Hatcher (d. June 2020); site maintained to preserve his work.
SynthesisYiGram Editorial
Read across the four Chinese traditions, Hexagram 41 names a very specific working posture: the deliberate sacrifice in which what is given up below produces the rise above, and the corresponding discipline of making the reduction sincerely rather than ornately. The Wings give the canonical reading: lake beneath the mountain — the noble person restrains anger and dams up desire; decrease below and increase above, the way proceeds upward; decrease and increase, fullness and emptiness, all move with time. Wang Bi sharpens the structural reading: the hexagram is the picture of the yang taken from line 3 and placed at the top, and the line-by-line texts describe the specific calibrations of giving at each altitude. Zhu Xi reframes the hexagram around the two simple bowls clause — 二簋可用享 — treating the substitution of plain ritual for elaborate offering as the hexagram’s defining ethical claim and the structural ground for the supreme fortune at line 5. The divinatory manual Bushi Zhengzong reads 41 strictly as the marker for active questions about reduction: the cut under consideration, the sacrifice on the table, the concentration being weighed against the expansion. The unified posture across all four sources is the same: Decrease is a discipline for recognising when the right reduction is the work, for making the sacrifice sincerely, and for receiving the structural increase the cut produces.
Yi ZhuanTuan + Xiang · Ten Wings
The Ten Wings are the canonical Confucian commentary stratum embedded in the received Yijing. For Hexagram 41 the two most directly relevant Wings are the Tuan Zhuan (彖傳, the Judgement Commentary) and the Xiang Zhuan (象傳, the Image Commentary). The Tuan for Decrease is one of the most temporally aware in the Yijing — it returns three times to the proposition that decrease and increase move with time.
Tuan 彖傳: 損，損下益上，其道上行。損而有孚，元吉，無咎，可貞，利有攸往。曷之用？二簋可用享。二簋應有時，損剛益柔有時，損益盈虛，與時偕行。
Decrease: decrease below, increase above — the way proceeds upward. Decrease with sincerity — supreme fortune, no fault, firm correctness possible, advantageous to have somewhere to go. What use? Two simple bowls of grain may be offered. The two bowls have their proper time. Decreasing the firm and increasing the yielding have their time. Decrease and increase, fullness and emptiness, all move with time.
Xiang 象傳: 山下有澤，損。君子以懲忿窒欲。
Lake beneath the mountain — Decrease. The noble person accordingly restrains anger and dams up desire.
The Tuan does the structural work: the downward-from-below / upward-to-above movement is the hexagram’s defining geometry, and the three-fold return to 時 — proper time — names the discipline of timing the cut. The Xiang compresses the whole hexagram into a four-character ethical instruction: 懲忿窒欲 — restrain anger, dam up desire — treating the inner reduction as the structural correlate of the outer sacrifice. Translations by YiGram Editorial from the classical Chinese.
Classical commentariesWang Bi · Zhu Xi · Bushi Zhengzong
Wang Bi (Zhouyi Zhu, 3rd century) reads Hexagram 41 as a hexagram about structural transfer. For Wang Bi the analytical centre is the picture of the yang taken from the third position and placed at the top: the hexagram is literally the trace of that movement, and the line-by-line texts describe the calibrated work of giving at each altitude. The line-2 弗損益之 clause is structurally interesting to Wang Bi because it names the position from which contribution is possible without depletion — the centred firm position whose very steadiness is the gift.
Zhu Xi (Zhouyi Benyi, 1188) reframes the hexagram around the two simple bowls clause — 二簋可用享 — treating the substitution of plain ritual for elaborate offering as the hexagram’s defining ethical claim. For Zhu Xi the supreme fortune at line 5 is structurally connected to the simplicity of the line-1 offering: the sincere two-bowl sacrifice at the bottom is what produces the ten-pair-tortoise-shell gift at the top. The hexagram is a sustained argument against ornate sacrifice and in favour of the calibrated offering whose sincerity is the structural ground of the eventual increase.
The Bushi Zhengzong (Qing-dynasty divinatory manual, 1709) reads 41 practically: a hexagram drawn in answer to a question about an active or proposed reduction — scope cut, headcount reduction, pay cut, feature kill, customer-segment narrowing. The manual is explicit that 41 is not a hexagram of general austerity; the cast applies when a specific sacrifice is on the table. The practical recommendation tracks the line position the question lands at: hurry the help at line 1 but pour by measure; hold the centred presence at line 2 without aggressive movement; cut the third partner at line 3; name the specific ailment at line 4; receive the unrefusable gift at line 5; let the giving be non-extractive at line 6.
Translations and paraphrase by YiGram Editorial from the classical Chinese. We do not reuse any modern third-party English rendering of these commentaries.
These method notes are not required to read the hexagram. They organize the traditional six-line structure for readers who want to see the rule layer beneath the plain-language reading.
Palace: Gen (mountain), third-generation (三世). Binary, bottom-up: 110001. Lower trigram: Dui (lake). Upper trigram: Gen (mountain). Shi line: 3. Ying line: 6.
The line branches, bottom-up, follow the Dui-below / Gen-above najia composition for Decrease: 巳 (line 1), 卯 (line 2), 丑 (line 3), 戌 (line 4), 子 (line 5), 寅 (line 6). Read against the Gen palace, whose element is earth, the six-relatives assignments are: line 1 巳 (fire) — parents (父母); line 2 卯 (wood) — officials (官鬼); line 3 丑 (earth) — siblings (兄弟); line 4 戌 (earth) — siblings (兄弟); line 5 子 (water) — wealth (妻財); line 6 寅 (wood) — officials (官鬼).
The shi line at position 3 carries siblings (丑, earth), the same element as the Gen palace itself — the actor stands at the position the hexagram structurally transferred outward, holding the palace’s native earth at the line that was given up. This is the najia correlate of line 3’s three-walking-lose-one image: the actor at the shi line carries the element being structurally transferred to the top. The ying line at position 6 carries officials (寅, wood), the element that overcomes the palace’s own earth — the receiving position is the regulator above the actor’s native ground. Read as a structural pair, the shi-ying axis of Decrease says that the actor occupies the position from which the sacrifice was taken while the receiving position is the regulated authority that the sacrifice produces. The structural correlate of the Xiang’s 懲忿窒欲: the inner reduction at the shi line is what makes the regulated upper position possible.
For a cast, this static layer records the palace, generation label, shi and ying positions, each line's branch and six-relative, moving-line positions, transformed hexagram, and the use-spirit selected by question category. The public page keeps that structure as a method note rather than as default reading text.
Audit status: unaudited_draft. The static-layer tables are pulled from the standard 京房纳甲 sequence and have not yet been cross-checked against the three reference texts named in the methodology. Errors should be reported against the v0.1.0 rule version in the GitHub rules directory.
For the full pipeline (how the static layer reaches the AI interpretation), see Methodology → Najia engine.
Sources
- Classical text of the Yijing (周易) — hexagram and line statements (卦辭 / 爻辭) from the received Zhou-dynasty edition. Public domain.
- James Legge, The Sacred Books of the East, Vol. XVI: The Yi King, Oxford University Press, 1882. Public domain.
- Zhu Xi (朱熹), Zhouyi Benyi (周易本義), 1188. Public domain.
- Wang Bi (王弼), Zhouyi Zhu (周易注), 3rd century. Public domain.
- Bushi Zhengzong (卜筮正宗), Qing-dynasty divinatory manual, 1709. Public domain.
- Tuan Zhuan (彖傳) and Xiang Zhuan (象傳), two of the Ten Wings (十翼). Public domain.
- Bradford Hatcher, Yijing Hexagram Names and Core Meanings (Version 12.1, 2011). © Bradford Hatcher, 2011. Reproduced under the author’s explicit permission to redistribute his work intact, with copyright notice; this page quotes the “Key Words” subsection only and links readers to the full original for the longer notes. Bradford Hatcher (d. June 2020).
All Chinese-to-English translations on this page are by YiGram Editorial, working directly from the classical Chinese. We do not reuse third-party modern English translations of any of the listed Chinese sources. Read the full source policy in the methodology page.
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